What has intelligence? Slime moulds, ants, fifth-graders, shrimp, neurons, ChatGPT, fish shoals, border collies, crowds, birds, you and me? All the above? Some? Or, on the danger of sounding transgressive: perhaps none? The query is a perennial one, usually dusted off within the face of a beforehand unknown animal behaviour, or new computing units which might be skilled to do human issues after which do these issues properly. We’d intuitively really feel our method forwards – selecting, for instance, to simply accept border collies and youngsters, deny shrimp and slime moulds, and argue endlessly about totally different birds – however actually it’s unimaginable to reply this query till we’ve handled the underlying concern. What, precisely, is intelligence?
As an alternative of a measurable, quantifiable factor that exists independently out on the planet, we propose that intelligence is a label, pinned by humanity onto a bag filled with a jumble of unbiased traits that helped our ancestors thrive. Although folks deal with intelligence as a coherent complete, it stays ill-defined as a result of it’s actually a shifting array masquerading as one factor. We suggest that it’s onerous to empirically quantify intelligence as a result of it exists solely relative to our expectations – expectations which might be human and, furthermore, particular person to explicit people. Due to this, very like Monty Python’s Spanish Inquisition, intelligence usually turns up within the locations we least anticipate it.
Intelligence will not be central to the success of most life on Earth. Contemplate the grasses: they’ve flourished throughout extremely numerous international environments, with out planning or debating a single step. Planarian worms regrow any a part of their physique and are functionally immortal, a trick we will handle solely in science fiction. And a microscopic virus successfully shut down international human motion in 2020, with out having any notion of what people even are.
As archaeologists, nevertheless, after we monitor the success of our species over millennia, the temptation is to tie all of it to some single, goal trait, a vibrant guiding star. That’s the place the idea of intelligence is available in. Our evolutionary success appears to map straight onto our smarts, by means of the invention of more and more elaborate instruments by our more and more intelligent great-great-great-etc-grandparents. On this pervasive – albeit stylised and slender – model of the human story, stone hand-axes and symbolic beads led inevitably to agriculture, writing and mechanised landscapes, setting the stage for newer triumphs, together with successful wars and Nobel Prizes, accumulating wealth, and reaching the Moon (first, ideally).
Regardless of its nebulous nature, intelligence is essential to us, and so we search it in others – in romantic companions, pets, leaders, pals and coworkers. We typically imbue ornery or useful objects of day by day use with intelligence, for instance, after we are helped by a brand new smartphone app or foiled by a Machiavellian padlock. It’s a trait that we marvel about and endlessly debate the existence of in nonhuman animals (hereafter, animals), from wild elephants and dolphins to caged monkeys and cats. Large effort is at present directed in direction of making an attempt to grasp intelligence, and construct vastly extra of it, below the umbrella of synthetic intelligence (AI) applications. It’s even a elementary a part of what we hope to search out in alien life, made specific within the long-running seek for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).
But regardless of facilitating the worldwide attain of our species, intelligence stays notoriously slippery to outline. When pressed, students usually level to extra tractable psychological abilities corresponding to abstraction, problem-solving, effectivity, studying, planning, social cognition and adaptableness – even numeracy or the power to recognise oneself in a mirror – though they quibble over which of them most reveal clever behaviour.
This plurality is exactly what we should always anticipate: intelligence will not be and by no means has been a single entity. As an alternative, it’s a hominin-shaped heuristic, a method for us to simply understand valued traits in different folks. Like magnificence, it lies within the eye of the beholder. And simply as we can not anticipate to automate the non-public, shifting lens by means of which every of us sees magnificence, a seek for something like synthetic normal intelligence (AGI) misses the purpose: nothing in intelligence is smart besides within the gentle of humanity, and our personal developed perceptions.
African gray parrots have the smarts of a human baby, however a lot smaller brains than is perhaps anticipated
The pure world overflows with animals that see, hear, scent and really feel in very other ways than we do, together with dwelling in situations that will crush, freeze, dissolve or cook dinner us alive. There are additionally a large number of smaller and single-celled organisms thriving in ways in which don’t simply match into our scale of actuality, to not point out the kingdoms of crops and fungi on the market. Each species alive right this moment will be thought of our equal within the success sport, by the easy advantage of continued existence. Bodily talking, people are a middling mammal with an odd hair sample, a badly developed again, and a mouth that not matches all our grownup enamel. All of which is why we actually like brains.
Absolute mind dimension, relative mind dimension, mind organisation, and neuronal density have all been used to foretell the place intelligence will emerge. Amongst dwelling animals, Homo sapiens has the best encephalisation quotient, which means that our brains are a lot larger than anticipated for our physique dimension. This performs to our vainness, however a few of the smartest creatures on the market have brains fairly not like ours – cuttlefish, for instance, depend on neurons of their arms for complicated problem-solving. African gray parrots have the smarts of a human baby, however a lot smaller brains than is perhaps anticipated. Shrews, however, have a few of the highest neuronal densities amongst mammals however, mockingly, they aren’t terribly shrewd. Tiny-brained digger wasps use tools, and monarch butterflies carry out continent-spanning annual migrations. Giant brains are essential for human intelligence, however life finds different methods to succeed.
Including to the mire, clever behaviour in folks will not be at all times the results of aware selection or rational technique, however can come up from autonomic processes. The cognitive effervescent up of hunches, intuitions and intestine emotions can usually be credited to ‘lower-order’ methods such because the sympathetic nervous system or the amygdala, or manifest as subliminal or unconscious conditioned responses to environmental cues. In some contexts, the mind itself has been advised as a poor candidate for the locus of intelligence. Supporters of swarm or collective intelligence inform us that the issue of problem-solving will be shared amongst a number of comparable entities, as in a shoal of fish or a surge of grasshoppers. Ants build boats, bridges and metropolises with populations within the hundreds of thousands, and but their particular person cerebral horsepower doesn’t quantity to a lot. The boundaries of an interacting group – the nest, the shoal, the rational thoughts, the nation-state – all will be argued as the size at which true intelligence arises. Paradoxically, we worth intelligence as a marker of particular person success, but it exists each as a collective of our personal neurons, and an mixture of collective behaviour. To paraphrase Inigo Montoya, we hold utilizing this phrase, however maybe it doesn’t imply what we predict it means.
If we’re going to proceed speaking about intelligence, we have to at the least be certain we’re speaking about the identical factor. Our start line is (we hope) uncontroversial: intelligence is a label that people use to assist dissect the world. The label’s existence doesn’t routinely imply that there’s a single, true factor to which it corresponds; simply as, a number of centuries in the past, having the phrase phlogiston didn’t assure the existence of a particular substance contained in burnable issues. That will appear apparent, however it emphasises that in the end it’s individuals who select and identify what issues. To reply the query of what intelligence is, we first must recognise that it’s us – folks – asking that query.
Not like most different organisms, we don’t often remedy our issues with elements of our our bodies. We needn’t have the warmest down, sharpest enamel, most poisonous pores and skin secretions, or larynxes greatest optimised for echolocation. As an alternative, we take into consideration stuff, after which we modify our environments to our benefit; we create instruments, make use of methods, assemble complicated habitats, and transfer symbols round. That is how people work. Intelligence doesn’t confer with a single measurable trait or high quality, however quite it indexes behaviours and capacities which have arisen at totally different occasions all through our species’ evolutionary historical past. Somewhat than a bundle that popped into being totally fashioned at a single time limit, this patchwork of selective benefits accrued over many millennia. No shock, then, that the traits recognisable to us as intelligence co-occur virtually solely in fashionable people.
Intelligence developed and is evolving. Some 7 million years in the past, our final widespread ancestors with chimpanzees have been already able to cultural behaviours and power use, and doubtless had superior understandings of bodily trigger and impact. Round 3.4 million years in the past, our intelligent 105 great-grandmother (somebody like Lucy the australopith) made, then used, sharp stone instruments to strategically scavenge meat. Entry to meat gave her descendants the additional vitality they wanted to gasoline their expensive mind tissues, with which they then formulated ever extra difficult instruments and techniques.
Intelligence is a method we determine co-occurring traits that, in our species, are prone to imply ‘success’
Since that point, our lineage has been doubling down on intelligence as an funding technique. Our Homo erectus ancestors, from 1.8 million years in the past, endowed us with the power to hunt, perhaps to cook dinner, and make elaborate instruments like hand-axes, watercraft and child slings. The rising must switch data and strategically coordinate with each other gave a selective benefit to those that have been good communicators. Some type of speech most likely burbled up between 2 million and 500,000 years in the past, between Homo erectus and our final widespread ancestor with Neanderthals and Denisovans. The power to encode info externally – in symbolic media corresponding to beads, tally sticks, tattoos or cave work – additionally heralds again to one in every of our Center Pleistocene ancestors. What is clear is that our personal species took this ball and ran with it, inventing writing, concrete, iPhones, chambers of commerce, and quantum computer systems all up to now 10,000 years.
Wanting again, it is smart that human intelligence is difficult to pin down. Intelligence will not be a single empirical, positivist high quality that exists in nature – it’s a method we determine co-occurring traits that, in our species, are prone to imply ‘success’. Intelligence is actual, as a result of it’s actual to us, however it’s not one factor. As an analogy, consider a rainbow. Rainbows exist, certain, however solely to somebody watching water droplets with the solar at lower than a 42-degree angle at their again. A rainbow is a unified idea that indexes a recognized factor, and but a rainbow is inherently a matter of perspective. Assuming these preconditions for rainbow-viewing are met, what we’re actually speaking about is an mixture of culturally derived (is turquoise blue or inexperienced?), discrete but overlapping (purple or orangey purple or orange?), arbitrary but actual (blue isn’t yellow, however grades into it) divisions within the spectrum of seen gentle. Furthermore, a rainbow is smart to us as an idea solely as a result of we’ve got an developed sensory equipment that may understand it, as primates who sometimes have three eye cone-cell sorts. Intelligence has a lot the identical properties: consider it because the ever-shifting rainbow our ancestors used to get issues completed. It indexes an mixture of evolutionarily adaptive parts, with discrete but overlapping (numeracy, device use, symbolic considering) and arbitrarily divided but actual (chess grandmaster intelligence vs diplomat intelligence vs rocket scientist intelligence vs customer support intelligence) capacities that saved our ancestors alive.
So why will we hold insisting that every one this stuff go collectively as a unified complete? What’s the level of discerning intelligence in each other, and why does it matter a lot to us that we’ve spent billions looking for and create it in machines?
Throughout our historical past, assessing the capacities of different people – the default actors in our evolutionary social world – has been a matter of life and demise. The adaptive benefit in not merely having however in recognising intelligence has paid nice evolutionary dividends. It’s a priceless cipher, alerting us to abilities in communication, coordination, expertise, technique, planning, sample recognition, and utilizing the setting to our benefit. We will view human life as a set of reliably occurring issues, actually on a regular basis issues, that revolve round survival, consolation, and discovering which means in sustaining our existence. Most of these issues are widespread sufficient throughout our pals, household and neighbours that any options they provide you with will work for us too, alongside any social advantages that come from simply becoming in with the group. Likewise, their errors – particularly the deadly ones – provide precious classes for our personal actions that ought to not or couldn’t be discovered independently. Selecting up on these cues is a key a part of surviving within the human world.
The capability to enact, recognise and transmit novel, adaptive, ‘clever’ behaviours saved our ancestors alive, however not by means of feats of energy or bodily prowess. Contemplate once more one in every of our australopith ancestors, who – utilizing simply their physique – didn’t stand an opportunity towards the enterprise finish of a leopard. Each one in every of Lucy’s neighbours who tried to go it alone towards an enormous cat risked a fast demise, however those that paid consideration to the ways in which their fellow hominins survived leopard encounters have been forewarned and actually forearmed. Leopards are a solvable drawback, and those that solved it have been displaying a top quality that our species has determined to name intelligence.
It doesn’t matter if the answer was self-camouflage, fashioning a sharp stick, coordinating an australopith horde, establishing a lined pit, yelling directions to your buddy in a tree, gaining the excessive floor, or providing the cat a mouse (every requiring totally different ranges of environmental, technological or social coordination and planning); its reliance on the judgment of observers means intelligence is outcome-based. Clearly, group members who manifest this trait are these we should always search to align ourselves with – emulate, befriend, marry, have on our crew, hearken to, promote as leaders – or to be careful for. In a human evolutionary context, assessing intelligence served as a gloss for tactics of doing that gave our ancestors a novel aggressive edge. Whereas the outputs of intelligence might have modified over time, they proceed to seize our consideration as a result of collectively they promote health, and have been maintained throughout generations by means of adaptive social choice to make sure people’ survival.
Discovering intelligence triggers a psychological alarm bell, then, in the identical method that seeing magnificence does. Its survival worth signifies that we’re predisposed to search for it. The human mind has been described as a prediction machine, one which builds a statistical mannequin of the world from all of the stuff that flows by means of our senses, after which tracks how properly that mannequin matches new info because it is available in. Having an correct mannequin makes processing actuality extra environment friendly – a profit for costly tissue like your mind – since you want to listen solely to these uncommon bits of knowledge which might be out of alignment. The result’s that many of the exterior world will be ignored a lot of the time, as you progress by means of an setting largely populated by background caricatures of bushes, clouds, buildings and even folks. Nonetheless, our minds even have a set of alerts that may drag you out of cruise management. Predators set off these alerts, as does a sudden loud noise, an sudden fall, a scrumptious scent from a close-by bakery or hotdog stand, or a very engaging individual strolling by. What these occasions have in widespread will not be their intrinsic nature, however what they elicit in us: shock.
Since we’re fast to assign intelligence to shocking options, we’re additionally liable to false positives
Surprisal, as it’s typically formally known as, is what occurs when the anticipated world and the reported one don’t match up. This technical model of shock aligns neatly with on a regular basis experiences that result in laughter, shock, concern and so forth, relying on whether or not the shock is welcome or not. Crucially right here, shock is subjective and fluid over time. It’s relational, current solely compared to our expectations. Shock’s job is to alert us that there’s something concerning the world that requires our consideration, one thing we didn’t anticipate – beneficial or not. Intelligence, then, invokes a specific flavour of shock, after we see somebody obtain an final result that goes past our personal mannequin – constructed from our private experiences to that time – of how the world can, or will, be solved.
Since we’re fast to assign intelligence to shocking options, we’re additionally liable to false positives. Sudden actors activate our cognitive tripwire. We is perhaps shocked, for instance, and see sudden intelligence in decision-making slime moulds that navigate to unravel a maze, or in an octopus named Otto fixing the issue of close by vibrant lights by taking pictures water jets to quick out his aquarium’s electrical community. And it’s onerous to not be shocked after we learn of California floor squirrels that chew up discarded rattlesnake pores and skin and rub it on their physique, disguising their scent from the predator. However when the identical squirrel freezes in oncoming site visitors, we actually don’t index that as clever behaviour. What we might fail to understand is that squirrels are hardwired to keep away from detection by not triggering their pure predators’ sensitivity to motion. Behaving inflexibly – enacting a inflexible, time-tested behavioural sample as a response to sure stimuli – will, similar to the ‘clever’ snakeskin-rubbing behaviour, often make sure the animal’s survival. In every case, the core of intelligence lies not in what the slime mould, octopus or squirrel is doing, nor within the adaptive context for a specific behaviour, however comes from inside us. We hallucinate intelligence.
Animals are notably properly suited to ring our developed alarm bells. Lots of them transfer and work together with the world in ways in which we will broadly perceive, dwelling at a velocity and dimension that we will comfortably watch, and, like us, dealing with a day by day seek for meals, shelter and mates. And the extra like us an animal is – if it has two eyes and a jaw and 4 limbs and lives on land – the extra readily we will map their options to their very own issues onto our personal expectations. However even issues that don’t resemble us repeatedly catch us out. When an animal surprises us by attaining a objective, fixing an issue, or enacting a profitable technique that we didn’t anticipate, we’re primed to register the mismatch between the demonstrated behaviour and our expectations as intelligence.
This occurs greater than we would suppose, for instance, after we mistakenly suppose that one thing is just too easy or small to carry out a fancy sequence of actions. On this method, bees or micro organism can seem extra clever the extra we get to know them. Nonetheless, we’ve got inbuilt limits to how lengthy we will stay shocked. Continued enquiry might in the end set a brand new baseline of expectations, to the extent that we lose our shock and dial again how a lot of their behaviour we label as intelligence, till ultimately we come to see it as explicable evolutionary programming. We recalibrate our expectations, simply in time to cease wanting ascribing ‘true’ intelligence to nonhuman entities. For instance, we inform ourselves that people do one thing intelligent or tactical as a result of our brains have simulated that this plan of action will produce beneficial outcomes, however after we be taught that ants do the identical factor by enacting preprogrammed responses to pheromones, absolutely that doesn’t rely. This cycle emphasises once more that the watcher performs the central function, quite than any innate attribute of – or beneficial final result for – the watched. Simply as your capacity to really feel shock is fluid, dependent in your age, your cultural background, and what you recognize and anticipate from a state of affairs, so too is your task of intelligence relational and changeable. Take the instance of salticid spiders, like these of the genus Portia, which may plan a sophisticated route from the place they stand to potential prey, after which comply with that path even when they’ll not see the prey throughout their journey. If, like us, you anticipated spiders to not be able to primarily creating and utilizing a psychological map, that may be a shocking discovery. However it doesn’t change what these spiders had been doing this complete time, below our very noses – it tells us about what we predicted they may do.
Furthermore, after we describe different animals or issues as having intelligence, we might inadvertently impute them with different human-like qualities. If a sea otter can use instruments, we would unconsciously assume that it’s like us in different methods; perhaps it has counting abilities, thinks abstractly, plans forward, or is aware of its reflection in a mirror. If it’s clever, how may it not? However that’s an unwarranted leap, rising from the best way we’ve got constructed self-centred definitions of intelligence. In people, skilful device use is a extremely correct indicator of a sure stage of growth in idea of thoughts (the power to attribute psychological states to others), delayed gratification and impulse management, procedural technique, and numeracy, as a result of these traits co-develop as human kids develop up. An individual chatting with you utilizing a fancy, recursive language very seemingly may also plan what they may have for dinner and execute on that plan, not as a result of language is the signal of intelligence, however as a result of language is an indication of a human, and people are additionally good at planning, in contrast with different recognized life kinds. Like life and time, intelligence is a useful shorthand for a fancy concept that helps us construction our lives, as folks. It’s primarily a synonym for humanness, and judging different animals by this metric does a disservice to their very own distinctive sea otterness, worminess, or sharkfulness.
In our view, intelligence has inadvertently turn out to be a ‘human success’-shaped cookie cutter we squish onto different species. Switching from baking to sports activities metaphors, let’s imagine that everybody else – animals, amoebas, AIs and aliens – has to play the sport on a subject that we’ve got laid out, in response to guidelines that we’ve got established and confirmed ourselves extraordinarily competent at following. We prize novelty and effectivity, so we’re shocked when an animal, swarm or program does issues extra rapidly than we anticipated, or takes sudden shortcuts to fixing an issue (because the AI AlphaGo did in sport two, transfer 37 of its matches towards the world Go champion Lee Sedol in 2016).
Humanity’s relationship to AI is characterised by related cycles of underestimation and shock, adopted by exploration, understanding and rationalization, and a subsequent downgrading of our perception that intelligence is at present at play. Present giant language fashions (LLMs) corresponding to ChatGPT converse in sentences which might be virtually indistinguishable from these of one other individual, and their fast search capacity, a number of layers of tweakable parameters, and coaching on large our bodies of human data permit them to succeed at commonplace intelligence checks. Nonetheless, the brittleness and unsure mechanisms of those applications have led to doubt about whether or not that is ‘true’ synthetic intelligence, which as a substitute is perhaps discovered solely when machines can cope with summary ideas, generalising from small numbers of examples to foretell lacking items – or the following piece in a collection of puzzles, one thing we people occur to be good at. As soon as once more, human minds are the shibboleth within the shadows: if a pc reveals one trait of human intelligence, however not the others, it slips in our estimation of true smarts.
What may success seem like to a tardigrade, or a pigeon, or a horseshoe crab?
That is typically known as the ‘AI impact’, defined by the pc scientist Larry Tesler as our tendency to imagine that ‘Intelligence is no matter machines haven’t completed but.’ Now that it’s attainable for machines to beat human chess grandmasters, the sport is not broadly seen as a marker of ‘true’ intelligence. In areas of drugs the place AI diagnoses are extra dependable than these of medical doctors, diagnosing these illnesses will equally be thought of unintelligent, mere rote computing. What modifications will not be the theoretical capacity of a machine to match or exceed a human, however our understanding of what a given system is able to. As soon as we will reliably predict its success, it’s not shocking, and the machine’s intelligence is relegated as merely mechanistic. The goalposts transfer of their very own accord.
Cell intelligence goalposts aren’t distinctive to animals and AI, and we anticipate they’ve been round so long as there have been people. Lots of our current and distant ancestors lived in tectonically lively areas, liable to volcanoes and earthquakes. These notoriously unpredictable and sometimes catastrophic occasions are ripe for being seen because the handiwork of clever – if mercurial – gods or spirits. Nonetheless, with larger data has come larger understanding, and predictions and explanations of eruptions and earthquakes are more and more (albeit not but completely) correct. A toddler may nonetheless be shocked by the sudden noise of a thunderstorm and attribute some type of punitive or malevolent intelligence to it. An informed grownup is aware of higher, and as a substitute attributes human-like intelligence to a brand new chatbot – however just for now. These are regular reactions to an unpredictable world. We do greatest after we know whom to appease, and with whom our allegiances lie.
The issues we name intelligence have reworked us from small, sluggish, bodily weak apes to the photo voltaic system’s most deadly apex predators. Nonetheless, after we ask whether or not different animals are clever, we’re not often asking what capacities or sorts of our bodies have been advantageous of their evolutionary previous. We’re actually asking whether or not they do issues the best way we do. Generally, the Venn diagram of animals’ success methods overlaps with ours (whats up dolphins!). However in in search of intelligence, we’re actually in search of ourselves – in search of success methods that match these present in our personal evolutionary story. If a machine skilled on human speech passably reproduces human speech; if a squirrel enacts a stereotyped behaviour as a response to a stimulus; if a bear, or a daffodil for that matter, received’t be taught to press a lever that enables it to open a field to get a deal with – so what? A concentrate on behaviours that resemble ours usually plasters over far more fascinating questions. What may success seem like to a tardigrade, or a pigeon, or a horseshoe crab? Would a peacock mantis shrimp, in a position to see an virtually unfathomable array of colors (in addition to polarised gentle) and strike with unimaginable drive whereas producing ultrasonic cavitation bubbles, be moved by our capacity to beat them at checkers?
The place does all this depart intelligence as a marker of human success? Truly, it’s properly intact. We are going to proceed to correlate intelligence with adaptation, sophistication, studying, planning, technique, abstraction and so forth that we see within the folks round us. We’ve developed to do it, so we’ll hold doing it. If any person’s capability for these issues elicits your consideration, after which surprises you, intelligence is there. In any case, intelligence is a unifying idea, however what it unifies is the human expertise: it’s the little drawing on our badge of success as a species.
Seen this manner, intelligence is unshackled from anyone parochial definition. Mother and father will comply with the altering intelligence of their rising kids, animal lovers will likely be delighted by what they see because the intelligence of their pets, and AI researchers will authoritatively state that taking part in chess simply isn’t clever behaviour (any extra). Somewhat than in search of to quantifiably evaluate this stuff, we will as a substitute realise that they don’t – and don’t must – align at a deeper stage.
Ultimately, as a substitute of speaking about how machines, animal collectives, or particular person birds and bugs exhibit intelligence, we must be higher ready to analyze how they developed or iterated these actions in their very own evolutionary areas, unshackled from human-shaped requirements. For these in search of a center floor, we is perhaps tempted to say that every species has its personal intelligence, however that declare carries an excessive amount of baggage at this level. A planet stuffed with problem-solving life exists aside from people, and none of it’s obligated to suit neatly into our subjective, self-serving mindset. We have to keep away from the true danger that we are going to miss animal or machine (or plant, fungal, bacterial, and even extraterrestrial) methods of succeeding simply because they’re essentially alien to our conceptual toolkit.
Like gazing by means of a stained-glass window at a vibrantly colored, snow-covered panorama, intelligence isn’t simply what we’re wanting for, it’s what we’re wanting by means of. People worth intelligence, and that isn’t about to vary. What might change is our capability to understand other forms of life on their very own phrases, divorced from anthropocentric box-checking. What we hope our suggestion does is forestall anyone restricted metric from skewing or obscuring the various sorts of success that exist in our world, together with these we’ve got but to find. We received’t simply see extra clearly, we’ll see greater than we did earlier than. If intelligence is not a default metric for species’ worthiness, how may our price judgments shift? Would we be extra inclined towards marvel, and may this marvel impel us to preserve the opposite wondrous creatures with whom we share this planet, and the environments wherein they developed their very own flavours of success? We predict that will be the good factor to do.
