A Very Short Philosophical Dictionary

That is written as a self-imposed train. One entry per letter. Doing so raises some attention-grabbing questions, the chief one being what to have for every letter. Nonetheless, there’s an added complication that the entries, whereas tussling for inclusion, are additionally typically interconnected, and as proven by the precise cross-referencing. One may need accomplished it in a different way, however that is my greatest go now, the urgent of the day. That thought could additional the dictionary’s worth – though the general thought is supposed to be barely humorous and never taken too severely – for not solely do I hope the entries, albeit restricted in quantity, are genuinely informative, it might elevate an attention-grabbing debate within the reader’s thoughts as to what entries they’d have, the identical or totally different, and why. In a extremely crude and unsatisfactory manner, the selection of entries displays a specific view of philosophy. Briefly, the train throws up all types of attention-grabbing issues. I purposely point out no philosophers by title, besides for 2 entries, as this is able to have led to inflation. These are my accounts within the entries, intentionally accomplished with no cribbing from different sources besides to a really minor diploma. – JS

A: Evaluation

Evaluation, from which Analytical Philosophy will get its title, is the method of taking aside, rendering into their constituent elements, concepts, ideas or arguments, to raised decide what they imply or their validity. Evaluation might also take the type of making distinctions, typically by means of conceptual distinctions, that’s to say separating one topic into its constituent elements with the intention to get a clearer understanding.

B: Perception

Perception is an assent to or affirmation of a reality, that’s to say, that one thing is the case. This assent or affirmation could also be a matter of diploma, which can depend upon both how certain one is of what one holds to be the case or how reluctant one is to desert one’s affirmation. Perception falls in need of knowledge in that within the case of perception it’s at all times attainable that what one believes could also be false; whereas it’s normally argued that what one genuinely is aware of can’t be false.

C: Consciousness

Consciousness is the capability for qualitative consciousness, most normally of oneself or the world. There’s something-it-is-like for the topic of that consciousness. This has led some to recommend that the distinctive, maybe defining, attribute of consciousness, is intentionality, that’s to say, aware consciousness is at all times of one thing, it has an intentional object no matter whether or not that object exists or not. That is disputed, as it’s argued that intentionality is neither a essential nor a enough situation for consciousness, as moods haven’t any intentional objects and that non-conscious objects could refer past themselves. Nonetheless, the qualitative consciousness signifies that the topic is not only reacting unreflectively to stimuli, however that there’s a subjective experience or really feel to their being on this planet. This makes consciousness, which is subjective on most accounts, a tough phenomenon to elucidate in a universe that’s considered in purely bodily goal phrases.

D: Determinism

That is the view that each occasion on this planet is as it’s due to some earlier occasion, and tracing this again in flip by way of earlier occasions has the consequence that no occasion may ever be totally different from what it’s. The primary drawback this throws up is that of free will, and our capability to decide on and be accountable, together with being held morally accountable, for our choices and actions. Determinism appears to indicate that we are able to act no in a different way than we do in any given scenario, and that deliberate alternative is an phantasm.

The very fact of determinism is undermined in a posh manner by indeterminacy within the theory of quantum mechanics, the place occurring occasions look like solely probabilistic, or knowable as possibilities. However it’s typically thought this does little or nothing to resolve the free will drawback. It nonetheless fails to permit for the normative, which can be held as a requirement for accountable alternative.

E: Expertise

Expertise refers typically to our qualitative consciousness or consciousness. Derivatively it might be our technique of entry to the world and our personal minds, and to the best way it’s, insofar as such qualitative consciousness grants it. Extra narrowly that is generally known as notion. The query then arises as to how a lot expertise can inform us in regards to the nature of the world, or actuality – how a lot of our expertise is illusory or deceptive as to the character of actuality, and the way a lot we are able to use it to justify what we learn about the best way issues are.

That have is a method, or the one means, to having knowledge of the world divides empiricists and rationalists, the previous being essentially optimistic in regards to the contribution of expertise, the latter contending that have is insufficient and wishes supplementing by reason, or that have is wholly incapable of giving us elementary information of actuality. Many philosophers suggest a mixed use of expertise and purpose in understanding the world. Expertise can be considered as a particular function of consciousness, particularly that there-is-something-it-is-like to be a aware being corresponding to a human, a subjectivity, whereas there’s nothing-it-is-like to be a non-conscious factor, corresponding to a rock.

F: Details

Details are the best way the world is, and they’re so independently of whether or not anybody is aware of or believes them to be so, or certainly whether or not they’re referred to in any manner in any respect. On one view of reality one thing is true if and provided that it corresponds to the best way the world is, and people methods the world is are info. Details are generally known as states of affairs.

G: Good

This can be a very broad time period that covers each ethical and non-moral issues which attribute some accolade or advantage to one thing. In each circumstances it refers to an object, or act, or scenario, that’s both fascinating in itself or apt for some consequence deemed fascinating. Thus, a knife that’s large sufficient and never too sharp could also be or is an efficient butter knife because it facilitates effectively buttering issues. Being form and useful to somebody in misery could also be known as good if the consequence thought proper or applicable is the lessening of struggling.

H: Human Rights

The thought of people having rights is that they’ve a set of ways in which they need to be and shouldn’t be handled, and that they be capable of do or not do sure issues, which in a State are expressed in legislation and might be enforced. There are those that argue that individuals have sure rights previous to and independently of the existence of the State, and no matter whether or not they are often enforced or not. They’re known as human rights, not solely as a result of they apply solely to people, however crucially as a result of they apply purely in advantage of 1’s being human, and for no different reason, corresponding to societal place, energy, or wealth, and as such they apply equally to all human beings. Such rights could also be divided into inalienable rights and alienable rights. Inalienable rights are such that no-one, together with the State, has the authority to take away them. Although it might be contended that it might happen within the case of an excessive emergency and breakdown of order, corresponding to a struggle – even then that’s questionable. Alienable rights are default presumptions which can underneath sure circumstances be balanced towards different concerns, typically regarding the rights of others, and could also be annulled or restricted, although maybe solely quickly. The query of which rights are which is open to debate. The best to not be brutally gratuitously crushed and tortured may rely as an inalienable proper. The best to freely affiliate with others may considered an alienable proper, and is likely to be eliminated if the affiliation is considered a risk to peace, or to the state, or to the fitting of others to not be harmed. A proper to do one thing makes it a presumption that one can do no matter the fitting permits whether or not what one does is morally proper, appropriate, or not. Thus, I’ve a proper to inform somebody I don’t like them even when morally within the circumstances it’s merciless and hurtful.

I: Induction

A type of inference whereby one makes an attempt by way of it to justify a common assertion or proposition amounting to a declare to knowledge on the premise of explicit cases that fall underneath the generality. Normally these explicit cases concern occurrences on this planet which intention to justify the assertion of information about some common assertion, corresponding to that one can know that the solar will rise tomorrow and on daily basis on the premise that it has accomplished so on daily basis prior to now. The inference can’t be deductively logically (see logic) legitimate, as to say the premises and deny the conclusion is rarely a logical contradiction, as it could be if the inference have been deductive. Deductive arguments result in conclusion which might be actually true if the premises are true, however inductive arguments solely result in conclusions which might be possible if the premises are true.

It might be argued that the validity of the inference is predicated on causation, that’s, that there’s a actual connection between one factor occurring and one other such that one has to observe it if the opposite does. Nonetheless, the declare of causation would appear to be primarily based on the validity of inductive inference relatively than the opposite manner round. Nor can the validity of inductive inference be primarily based on the argument that inductive inference has been proven to work prior to now so subsequently it can work sooner or later, for this being itself an inductive inference would beg the query by assuming the validity of inductive inference, the very factor that the argument was meant to justify.

This has led some to conclude that induction can by no means be justified as a type of inference. Nonetheless, this clashes in observe with what is usually the precise justificatory observe of science and certainly in our on a regular basis life. We kind our view of what’s going to occur on the premise of what has occurred. Once we go away a room and return into it seconds later, we don’t anticipate all of the furnishings within the room to have vanished. Some nonetheless say that induction will not be the correct methodology of science, which must be falsification. Science ought to concern itself with testing theories by making an attempt to falsify them, not corroborate them, and do that by discovering some occasion that fails to suit the theory. Rational credence must be given to the speculation greatest examined on this manner and never but proven to be false.

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J: Justice

This will get utilized in varied methods, however as a generality to therapy being allotted on the premise of what individuals, or teams of individuals, deserve as guided by some set of ethical ideas. Thus an individual could get a sure punishment that’s deemed morally to be proportional and applicable for a criminal offense and another person is likely to be given the correct quantity of recompense for hurt accomplished to them. Justice is subsequently typically about balancing – it’s historically represented by a set of scales – two or extra issues, and apportioning no matter is in query in a morally defensible method.

Ok: Information

What information is, what counts as information, is usually outlined by the character of its objects, generally by the character of the best way objects are apprehended, and generally by a mixture of each. Thus, it’s generally stated that we all know solely essential everlasting truths, corresponding to these of arithmetic, or know solely issues we’re instantly acquainted with in our experience and that contain no inference, corresponding to experiencing a crimson patch.

Nonetheless, there’s additionally a conventional tripartite definition of information that analyses a sure relationship we will need to have to what’s identified, particularly that it’s: true, justified, belief. One thing can’t be stated to be identified except it’s true, and if we all know one thing we consider it, and we now have some enough justification for claiming that what we declare to know is true. The primary of those circumstances, that of reality, is comparatively uncontroversial, although it has been challenged. However it could be odd to say that one knew one thing that turned out to be false.

The third situation, perception, is extra contentious. It makes information tied to a merely factual psychological state, which as well as some regard as irrelevant. It is likely to be stated, for instance, that books include information however that no state of perception is concerned. Nonetheless, the thought is that perception is a lesser state of sureness than information, and that if one is aware of one thing one should no less than consider it.

The second situation of justification is essentially the most tough as it’s arduous to find out what diploma or type of justification is required for it to be enough to say information. Certainly, some argue that nothing will do, and that we could at all times discover circumstances of true, justified, perception being glad which we’d nonetheless not rely as information. Nonetheless, the concept behind the justification requirement is {that a} state of understanding shouldn’t be a matter of mere probability – however even right here, if one thinks of somebody who will get the fitting reply to one thing each time, say the winner of a horse race, with out understanding why, one would absolutely be tempted to say they know the winner. There are those that subsequently say that information can’t be outlined, and that information is luminous and thus we simply intuit, or know, that one is in a state of information when one is in it.

There are additionally others who say that even when we had a definition of information we may by no means comprehend it was appropriate. If the intention of the definition is to inform us what’s or will not be information, then we can not with out circularity use it to find out if the definition is appropriate. Alternatively, it’s arduous to delineate another manner of claiming to know what information is that could possibly be used to evaluate the correctness of the definition.

L: Logic

Logic is a self-discipline which goals to formalise, if one prefers, generalise, what counts as a good and a nasty argument. It does this by abandoning the actual content material of arguments – what the argument is about – and abstracting its kind (or form). In that manner we could know that any argument with that kind might be a superb argument, or as it’s termed in logic, a legitimate argument, whatever the explicit content material. All arguments with that kind might be legitimate. This leads, though it’s not important aside from higher readability, to the symbolization of argument types the place letters, such p and q, stand in for entire propositions (see proposition). Coping with propositions in that manner is known as Propositional Logic.

Taking this additional, one could look inside propositions, an analysis of their constituent elements. That is known as Predicate Logic (see quantifier) and has its personal inside technical issues and pursuits that aren’t solely vital to logicians, but additionally to philosophers of language.

Logical inferences fall into two types, deductive and inductive (see induction). Legitimate deductive inferences are such that to say the premises and deny the conclusion can be a logical contradiction, which isn’t permitted as a result of a contradiction is the assertion of and denial of the identical proposition. Arguably this is able to consequence within the breakdown of all rational considering (see reason). If the premises of a legitimate deductive argument are true, then the conclusion have to be true additionally. A sound deductive argument with true premises is known as a sound argument. On this manner it might be stated that legitimate deductive arguments with true premises are truth-preserving, or hypothetically, they’re truth-preserving if the premises are true. The criterion for a legitimate inductive argument is extra controversial, however is allegedly primarily based on making a conclusion extra possible on the premise of an accumulation of associated cases.

M: Morals

This, or morality, typically will get used interchangeably with ethics, although generally ethics is used to check with essentially the most theoretical reflection on what we’re or could take to be guides to our conduct regarding our attitudes to, behaviour in the direction of, and therapy of, others.

The ethical considerations a specific type of values, it assigns a sure type of that means to some issues, the understanding or judging that some issues stand out and are extra vital or vital or have higher value than others, and amongst these issues they’ve it to a higher or lesser diploma.

The three important theories of ethics or morals are deontology, utilitarianism, and advantage ethics. Nonetheless, this isn’t exhaustive, to not point out that inside every of the beforehand talked about ethical theories there are nuances and sub-theories.

The primary, deontology, emphasises ethical guidelines that should apply equally to all, and that these guidelines alone ought to information our ethical choices, by way of which we arrange the fitting ethical intentions.

The second, utilitarianism, emphasises the implications of our actions, and the maximisation of the general good, decided in a roundabout way, in calculating our ethical choices.

The third, advantage ethics, considerations itself with ethical virtues with which we should always imbue our characters if we wish to be able to extend the probability that we are going to act morally effectively.

The premise of any ethical theory is extremely contentious, as in a universe conceived as having its full description in bodily legal guidelines, it’s arduous to see how normative values important to ethical considering and motion (versus a mere description of what we do) can have a spot (see will).

N: Normative

Normative, or normativity, denotes the capability to observe a rule, versus merely appearing in accord with a rule. A falling rock will fall in accord with the rule, or legislation, governing free falling our bodies topic to gravitation, however the rock will not be following the rule or legislation. Nonetheless, an individual could also be stated to be following a rule once they achieve this in respect of, say, the rule by no means to inform lies, or to not stroll on the grass, or to jot down 4 after the sum 2+2=.

Following a rule includes an understanding or greedy of the rule, what it means, and a call to behave in accord with it. Important is that one could select to observe or to not observe the rule. Creatures which might be able to following a rule are typically picked out by our having the ability to say of them that they’ve accomplished one thing appropriately or made a mistake. A rock can not make a mistake, as a rock does what a rock does, and if counterfactually a rock didn’t fall in response to the legislation governing falling our bodies, it could be the legislation that was flawed, not the rock making a mistake. Thus, we attribute the capability for ethical (see morals) errors, accountability, and culpability to human beings (or individuals), whereas we would say ‘unhealthy canine’ when it fails to behave in accord with its coaching rule, however we don’t actually imply it, as a canine can’t be stated to be following a rule however merely appearing or not appearing in accord with a rule. Normativity permits us correctly to use the phrases ‘ought to’ and ‘ought’ within the sense of one thing required whether or not it factually happens or not. In any other case, with out the normative, issues merely occur or don’t occur.

O: Ontology

That is the a part of philosophy that considerations itself with what and the way issues exist. Most of the disputes over ontology centre on three varieties of how of being or existence: the bodily, the psychological, the transcendental, and whether or not one or some mixture of them exists. That is typically being handled by arguing for the reducibility of 1 type of being to a different getting rid of the necessity to suppose that that the decreased type of existence want be precise. One other different supposed manner of viewing existence is monism, whereby all obvious modes of existence, corresponding to these simply cited, are decreased to 1 underlying mode from which their look to us derives.

P: Proposition

A proposition is the that means of a sentence. This frequent that means might be prolonged throughout totally different languages, so they’re stated to specific the identical proposition regardless that their mode of expression is totally different. Thus the identical proposition is expressed by the sentences ‘Il pleut’, ‘Es regnet’ and ‘It’s raining’. A proposition might also be stated to be the that means of an entire thought. Propositions are declarative, that’s they declare, or state, that one thing is the case. They’re additionally intentional in that they might be stated to specific intentional thought, that’s, one that’s about one thing (see consciousness). It’s subsequently stated that propositions have the overall kind (see logic) of f(x), the place x is an object and f some property or function the article is claimed to have. ‘The ball (x) is blue (f).’

Q: Quantifier

This refers to an emblem in logic. It takes two types: the common (∀) and existential (∃) quantifier. Respectively ‘all’ and ‘some’, the place some means no less than one. Quantifiers permit one to interrupt a proposition down into its constituent elements, to look inside a proposition. This considerably will increase the flexibility to evaluate with extra detailed formal analysis the validity of arguments. Logic that includes quantifiers is known as Predicate Logic, and the a part of logic that offers with entire propositions Propositional Logic. On this manner one can symbolise not solely that an object or entity has a sure property, but additionally whether or not all or a few of such objects or entities have that property. Thus one could categorical the proposition ‘All frogs are inexperienced’ as (∀x)Gx and ‘Some frogs are inexperienced’ as (∃x)Gx, the place ‘x’ stands for ‘frog’ and ‘G’ stands for inexperienced.

R: Purpose

Purpose signifies a manner of coming to a conclusion about what’s the case or what one ought to take into consideration one thing by way of it being primarily based on premises – starting statements – and an accurate strategy of inference, shifting by way of different statements, that results in that conclusion in such a manner that the conclusion is genuinely supported as true. Most easily put, one does the most effective one can to make sure the premises are appropriate and is as cautious as one might be in drawing solely conclusions that really observe from these premises.

Purpose is a normative course of. As well as, purpose includes the willingness to vary one’s view or conclusion, admit one is flawed, ought to the arguments or proof alter and point out that one ought to. One may add that it additionally includes a sure open-mindedness to get to the purpose of fixing one’s thoughts, even looking for out the likelihood. This versus sticking to a view or conclusion come what could. The rational contrasts with the irrational – coming to conclusions on the premise of premises and processes of inference that make no sense as methods of coming to the conclusions, with an expectation of exhibiting them to be true.

It additionally contrasts with the arational (non-rational) – a causal course of wherein no inferential course of is concerned, or will not be the decisive function of the method that leads one to the conclusion. In sure circumstances, nonetheless, this can be the most effective or solely approach to attain the conclusion.

The arational shouldn’t be confused with the irrational. An instance of the irrational can be the argument that the solar shines as a result of geese can quack. An instance of the arational can be coming to the realisation that one loves somebody.

S: Scepticism

This refers to doubts about our capability to know (see knowledge). Scepticism could also be slender or large, and differ in diploma of depth. We is likely to be sceptical in regards to the extent to which by way of our senses we are able to have information of the world – how a lot our senses deceive us and the way a lot they offer us a real image of actuality. Plainly our senses do deceive us generally and in some respects – the mirage within the desert – however scepticism would prolong this, and excessive scepticism would take it to the purpose that our senses can by no means give us information of the exterior world. On this occasion scepticism may coincide with solipsism, the view that every one we are able to actually know is the contents of our personal ideas. Nonetheless, scepticism needn’t solely apply to the senses and could also be utilized to something we declare to know, together with mathematical and logical truths. Certainly, it’s arduous to seek out something that we couldn’t in precept doubt the reality of. This in flip results in the query of how we may ever know something to be true, as we now have no certain beginning place. A level of scepticism is by most regarded as completely justifiable because it evokes questioning and testing of claims and thought, whereas very in depth or absolute scepticism is claimed to be harder to justify – or certainly maintain – and is finally stultifying to any claims to information.

T: Concept

An thought or set of concepts about why and the way one thing is the case. Thus we would have a idea about why and the way rainbows kind, or why and the way the earth tracks a specific orbit across the solar. The phrase is usually used interchangeably with speculation, although idea tends to check with views which have been extra examined and established – these which might be even much less so than both in testing and being established are generally known as conjectures. Theories can merely come from a stroke of inspiration, or develop from units of repeated observations, and it issues not which, for the primary factor is that the speculation, particularly if it’s a scientific idea, is examined towards actuality. That is accomplished by inferring observations from the speculation which ought to, if the speculation is sound, change into true, by some mode of verification. There could also be varied theories regarding a typical matter, and it’s argued that the one rational (see reason) approach to proceed is to consider, no less than in the interim, the speculation that’s greatest examined and never refuted.

U: Universals

This refers to what it’s that makes a number of cases of one thing the identical type of factor, kind, or sort. Thus ‘crimson’ is a common, and it’s what all cases of crimson have in frequent. The subsequent query is what the ontological (see ontology) standing or nature of those universals is. Some suppose that they have to exist independently, maybe transcendentally, of all the actual cases which instantiate them. Others nonetheless contend that such positing of transcendental universals is extravagant and pointless, and the reference to a common is simply one other manner of referring to the gathering of its cases.

V: Verification

The method of exhibiting or figuring out one thing to be true. If one thing is true no matter is claimed to be true is the case. One thing might be true with out being verified. So a reality is likely to be unverified. A reality could additional be considered unverifiable, however issues turn out to be extra difficult as this splits into two senses of unverifiable. One sense is that one thing is unverifiable in observe. For instance, there is likely to be a small pink stone balanced on a inexperienced stone on a planet thousands and thousands of light-years away. That is manner past what is feasible for us to confirm, however not logically not possible to take action and there’s no logical contradiction (see logic) concerned. The second sense is that one thing could also be unverifiable in precept – for this comes with contentions as to what verifying one thing must contain which may be judged not possible.

Being unverifiable in precept has led some philosophers to argue that there can’t be such truths, and that any putative assertion of such truths is meaningless nonsense, because the that means of the reality, whether it is significant, have to be totally fleshed out in what its verification can be.

W: Will

Will is claimed by some to be a drive that brings about change and motion. It may be regarded as all-pervasive or localized. Within the former case it may be both blind and purposeless or guided by some putative greater energy to some finish or ends. If localized, typically it’s argued that solely people – or maybe individuals – possess will. It’s by way of the harnessing of it inside themselves that they will information their lives, their ideas and actions, and achieve this freely in a manner which means they’ve real alternative and accountability for what they suppose, do, and who they’re. By which case they’re stated to own free will. Plainly inanimate objects, and it’s generally supposed non-human animals, possess no such free will, however are merely decided to do what they do by causal forces appearing upon and inside them, figuring out an inevitable final result. It’s controversial, nonetheless, how human beings can possess free will and in some way, as may appear to be required, stand apart from the strict causal necessity, or determinism, of the remainder of the universe, or how alternatively they will possess free will in some significant sense whereas nonetheless being totally inside the realm of causal willpower.

X: Xenophon

Xenophon of Colophon (fl. 504 BC). He made his most vital contribution to epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and appears to have been an early empiricist of a strict kind, in that he argued that we should always not declare information past that which we instantly and instantly expertise, and all past that we should always merely declare to have opinions which might be true taken or inferred from what we could instantly and instantly expertise.

Y: Yinyang

That is the concept in Chinese language thought that there are two nice reverse however complementary – that’s to say, finishing – forces, that mix into chi that govern all features of your complete universe. Thus there’s male/feminine, black/white, darkish/gentle, gentle/arduous, and so forth.

Z: Zeno

Zeno of Elea (fl. 464 BC) is greatest identified for his so-called paradoxes. He was one of many so-called Eleatic philosophers, numerous philosophers who predate Socrates, often known as Presocratics. Zeno’s paradoxes fall into two teams, these of plurality and people of movement. The motivation for the paradoxes is to indicate that there are inherent contradictions in the best way we take into consideration actuality. Plurality: if we take any object, it should both have dimension or be nothing. However any elements with dimension have to be divisible into additional elements. In that case we should finish with an infinite variety of elements. If the elements are nothing, then the entire can be nothing, and if the elements have dimension as a result of they’re infinite in quantity any entire they kind can be infinitely giant. So both nothing exists or every part is infinitely giant. Movement: essentially the most well-known case is that of Achilles and the Tortoise. They’re in a race, and Achilles being very fast provides the Tortoise a head begin. The paradox is that it appears as if Achilles can by no means go the Tortoise for nonetheless shortly he runs, by the point he will get to the place the Tortoise was, when he has lined the space between them, the Tortoise may have moved on. The same paradox arises in strolling throughout a room, which turns into not possible as a result of every step could also be divided into an infinite variety of smaller steps, and it’s not possible to finish an infinite variety of steps in a finite time – it’s not possible subsequently even to take step one. It has been argued that the arithmetic of differential and integral calculus dispel these paradoxes, however not everybody agrees that’s so.

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Cowl picture: The Voynich manuscript (fifteenth century, public area).

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